Emma Cain

Introduction

Homelessness is a complex social issue that affects thousands of individuals across the nation each year. It has significant implications for individuals' mental health, physical health, and social connections, as well as broader societal impacts. Unfortunately, research highlights the disproportionate number of individuals experiencing homelessness as a result of domestic violence or sexual assault. This literature review examines existing research on homelessness and its relationship to individuals' and families' overall well-being. It also addresses potential interventions, limitations within current research, and opportunities for future policy initiatives.

History of Homelessness

The term "homelessness" originated in the 1870s and was initially intended to "define itinerant tramps traversing the country" (Policy and Global Affairs et al., 2018). However, the McKinney-Vento Act (42 U.S.C. § 11302) is commonly used to define homelessness when determining eligibility for federal programs. According to this act, homelessness is defined as lacking a "fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence" (The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act). This definition includes individuals residing in temporary or transitional settings, such as cars, motels, and other unstable living situations.

Homelessness in the United States became increasingly visible during the 1980s following deinstitutionalization policies and economic recessions (Greenberg & Rosenheck, 2010). These changes contributed to a decline in affordable housing availability, further perpetuating housing instability and homelessness. In 2013, approximately 267,000 people lived in shelters across the United States (US Census Bureau, 2024). By 2020, the homeless population had increased to more than 500,000 individuals, including families with children (Moses, 2021).

Veterans, families, and single adults represent some of the primary populations affected by homelessness. Additional vulnerable populations include individuals with disabilities, veterans, and unaccompanied youth under the age of 25 (State of Homelessness: 2023 Edition - Endhomelessness.org, 2024). Individuals from racial and ethnic minority groups also experience homelessness at disproportionate rates. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) concluded that approximately 40% of the homeless population consists of minorities, compared with approximately 13% of the general population (HUD 2020 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs Homeless Populations and Subpopulations, 2020). Homelessness and the lack of affordable housing create a cycle that exacerbates economic inequality and social disparities.

Various pathways to homelessness have been identified, although domestic violence and sexual assault significantly increase an individual's risk. Researchers have specifically identified eviction following domestic violence as a major contributing factor for survivors. Additionally, psychological trauma, financial dependence, and limited support networks can further increase housing instability (Browne & Bassuk, 1997).

Unemployment and homelessness have continued to increase since 2020, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic. This remains a national concern due to ongoing challenges, including limited affordable housing availability across states. Recent economic trends, such as inflation, have further intensified financial insecurity and housing instability. Professor of Economics Marianne Bitler noted that households with "fixed incomes, such as retirees, also tend to suffer disproportionately during inflation because [...] their incomes cannot adjust" as economic conditions change (Russ et al., 2022). However, limited federal and state policy responses continue to negatively affect many American workers and families.

Risk Factors and Intersectionality

Risk factors for homelessness are generally categorized into three levels: individual, social, and structural. Individual-level factors, including substance use, domestic violence, and limited educational opportunities, increase an individual's likelihood of experiencing homelessness (Caton et al., 2005). Mental health challenges represent another significant individual risk factor commonly associated with homelessness. Research indicates that approximately one-third to one-half of individuals experiencing homelessness have serious mental health concerns (Herman et al., 2018).

Social factors, including poverty and employment status, also significantly influence the likelihood of homelessness (Kushel et al., 2016). Structural factors, such as insufficient supportive services, limited affordable housing, and systemic inequalities, can further perpetuate homelessness (Desmond, 2016). A review of multiple studies examining homelessness identified common contributing factors, including "drug abuse, family violence," mental health challenges, limited education, and poverty (Zhao, 2022).

Additionally, experiencing homelessness increases an individual's vulnerability to violent victimization, including crimes such as "rape, assault, and attempted robbery" (Institute of Medicine U.S. Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, 1988). A 2012 study found that adults in the United States who reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse were more likely to experience housing instability later in life (Green et al., 2012).

Intersectional analyses are also critical for identifying the unique barriers experienced by marginalized populations affected by domestic violence and housing instability. Researchers in 2020 emphasized the importance of examining the interconnected influences of gender, sexual orientation, race, and socioeconomic status (Bullock et al., 2020). To develop effective and equitable interventions, programs must prioritize intersectional approaches that address the multiple, overlapping challenges individuals may face.